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Introduction to Exodus
"Exodus," from the Latinized abbreviation of the Greek title exodos aigyptou ("exit from Egypt").
The second book of the Bible in all canonical traditions, Exodus is not an independent work but rather an integral part of the Torah. Traditionally taken as being written by Moses, as mentioned in the introduction to Genesis, this can not be so. Like the rest of the Pentateuch, Exodus contains contradictions and redundancies. For example, Moses' father-in-law is sometimes called Reuel and sometimes Jethro; and the mountains of revelation is Sinai in some passages and Horeb in others. The narratives of Moses on the mountain in chs 19 and 24 have many overlapping and conflicting details, as does the account of the calamities—called "ten plagues" in postbiblical tradition but not in the Bible—against the Egyptians in 7.8-10.29.
Exodus depicts a story line describing the departure of a group of oppressed people from Egypt to a sacred mountain in Sinai where they enter into a covenant with the God they believed rescued them; then, at that God's direction, they construct a portable shrine for their deity before continuing their journey.
Historicity is once more questioned here; the literary strands comprising this text date from many centuries after the date described, and no historical or archaeological records support the claims made of an Egyptian exodus nor the travel of such a people across the continent. This extends too to the conquest of the land of Israel by Joshua.
Despite these problems, the basic story line about the departure from Egypt fits broad evidence from Egyptian and other sources. Foreigners from western Asia, called "Asiatics" in Egyptian documents, periodically did migrate to Egypt, especially during times of famine (see Gen 12.10; 41.57; 43.1-2); others were taken to Egypt as military captives or were forcibly sent there as human tribute by Canaanite rulers. Moreover, many such groups, including those who voluntarily entered Egypt, were conscripted for state projects (see Ex 1.11-14). This pattern was especially strong toward the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1400-1200 BCE). And, although virtually all of the foreigners in Egypt were assimilated into local culture, there is at least one documented instance of several workers escaping into the Sinai wilderness. Thus the overall pattern of descent into Egypt followed by servitude and escape accords with general information in ancient documents. In addition, the end of the Late Bronze Age, by which time the Israelites would have left Egypt, coincides with the date of inscriptional evidence—a stele erected by Pharaoh Merneptah in ca. 1209 BCE—for a people called "Israel" in the land of Canaan, the first mention of Israel outside the Bible.
The writer of this introduction, Carol Meyers, theorizes here of how it is possible that a relatively small group of people could have escaped servitude and told of their story in Canaan, thus setting in motion an oral tale that developed into the mythology attributed to Yahweh as told in Exodus. It's an interesting theory, and I dont doubt that the oral tradition that lead to the formulation of the Torah was indeed comprised of some such tales. Good fun!
The book can be subdivided into thematic and literary units in various ways; this one positions the revelation at Sinai and the covenant in the center:
Part I: Israel in and out of Egypt (1.1-15.21): God sees Israelite suffering in Egypt (chs 1-2), Moses becomes God's spokesperson (3.1-7.7), and a series of calamities (7.7-13.16), known in tradition as the "ten plagues," culminate in the escape of the people (13.17-15.21).
Part II: Sinai and covenant (15.22-24.18): After traveling through the wilderness (15.22-18.27), the Israelites reach Mount Sinai, where they experience a theophany (a divine appearance, chs 19, 24), and receive the covenant (chs 20-23).
Part III: Sanctuary and new covenant (25:1-40:34): An episode of apostasy followed by covenant renewal (chs 32-34) separates instructions for building the sanctuary (chs 25-31) from the account of its construction (chs 35-40).
Exodus would have been an important literary tool and item of faith for Judeans suffering defeat and exile in the sixth century BCE, as the fundamental ideas about God expressed in this text, such as his care for the oppressed as well as his liberation of the people in Egypt would have helped alleviate their concerns and reinforce their status and understanding of themselves as a distinct people under YHWH.
Exodus
Ex 1.1-15.21: Israel in and out of Egypt. The Israelites are oppressed in Egypt; but they escape through the intervention of their God, whose identity is revealed to their heroic leader Moses, who then carries out God's directives to secure their release.
Ex 1.1-22: The oppression of the Israelites. Prologue to bridge Genesis with Exodus.
Ex 1.1-7: "Israel" referring to Jacob. In Scripture, seven often symbolizes completion or perfection; the notion of seventy descendants of Jacob signifies that all Israel is present in Egypt. Emphasis on Israelite proliferation serves to indicate that God's divine promises are now fulfilled through Israel.
Ex 1.8: The king described is commonly identified as Rameses II (1279-1213 BCE), but he is not named here or anywhere in the Bible, possibly as a means of demeaning him.
Ex 1.10: Possibility of Israelite escape mentioned as an act of foreshadowing.
Ex 1.15-22: Forced labor fails to deplete the Israelite population; selective infanticide is thus implemented.
Ex 1.15: "Hebrew" seems to denote Israelites as a people, often in the speech of non-Israelites, where it may be a derogatory term.
Ex 1.17: "Feared God" indicates an awareness that killing would cause divine retribution.
Ex 2.1-25: The emergence of Moses.
Ex 2.1-10: As in the birth legends of other heroic figures in ancient literature, the miraculous rescue of the doomed infant Moses signifies that he is destined for greatness.
Ex 2.2: "Saw that he was a fine baby", lit., "saw that he was good," echoes the language of creation in Gen 1.
Ex 2.3: The hebrew word for basket appears elsewhere in the Bible only to refer to Noah's ark; here it is the means for rescuing the person who will save the Israelites.
Ex 2.10: As an Egyptian name, Moses means "is born", and it is often used in conjunction with a god's name, e.g., Thutmoses, Ahmoses, Rameses, but here it is given a Hebrew etymology ("he who draws out") in anticipation of Moses's role in drawing his people through the sea.
Ex 2.11-15: In the first two episodes of his adult life, Moses saves one Hebrew and tries to adjudicate between two others; both roles will recur and involve all his people.
Ex 2.17: Saved by the daughter of a king, Moses saves the daughters of a priest: the motif of saving recurs, anticipating the ultimate salvation or deliverance at the sea (13.17-15.21).
Ex 2.18: Reuel, elsewhere called Jethro or Hobab, likely reflecting different ancient sources.
Ex 2.23-25: It is only now that it is indicated that God becomse aware of the Israelite plight in Egypt, "remembering" his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
Ex 3.1-4.17: Moses's call and mission. The god of the ancestors appears to Moses in Midian, revealing the divine name and commisions Moses to free his people; the term "prophet" is not used for Moses within Exodus, but the narrative presents him as one.
Ex 3.1-10: Theophany: a divine revelation at the bush, where serveral sources have been combined.
Ex 3.2: An "angel" (lit., "messenger") is a manifestation of God, who sometimes takes human form. God's physical presence also appears shielded in clouds and fire (e.g., Ex 19.9; 24.15-18; 33.9; 40.34-38), both sometimes depicted as pillars (Ex 13.21; 14.19,24); seeing God directly can be dangerous (see 3.6n).
Ex 3.6: Divine presence represents such intense, mysterious, and powerful holiness that it was considered dangerous to humans, hence Moses's reluctance to look at God's (physical) manifestation.
Ex 3.8: "Come down," implying that God resides in a heavenly abode.
Ex 3.11-17: Prophets are often reluctant, and Moses confronts God with four problematic issues.
Ex 3.11-12: Moses's first problem is a sense of unworthiness.
Ex 3.13-15: The next problem is not knowing God's name. Deities were identified by their proper names (not by generic "God"), and the Israelites will want to know which god has sent Moses to them. I am who I am (Hebrew "'ehyeh 'asher 'ehyeh") renders the first name that God provides; a shortened form, I am ("'ehyeh"), renders the second. These translations are uncertain, however, for the Hebrew is ambiguous. The third name is "Lord", which has four Hebrew letters, "yhwh" (probably pronounced Yahweh) in Hebrew and is thus known as the Tetragrammaton. Like the first two versions of God's name, its root means "to be" but its specific meaning is unclear. Because of the great sanctity of God's name, early Jewish tradition avoided pronouncing it and used the Hebrew word "adonay" ("my lord") as a substitte. Most translations respect that tradition and use Lord for the deity's proper name. According to Gen 4.26 (see also Gen 13.4), people knew God's name early in human history; but this passage along with 6.3 preserves a different tradition, that Moses is the first to hear it. In ancient nonbiblical sources this divine name is known from a Late Bronze Age inscription that mentions the "Shasu of ya-h-wa [or yhw]"; the Shasu were desert-dwellers and included Midianites.
Ex 3.16-22: A directive to Moses about speaking to his people and Pharaoh precedes other two problems.
Ex 3.16: "Elders" of Israel, referring to representatives of the people in community governance (see also 4.29; 12.21; 17.5,6; 18.12; 19.7; 24.1,9,14).
Ex 3.18: God of the Hebrews, connecting the Lord to a specific people when addressed to non-Israelites.
Ex 4.1-9: Moses's third problem, that people will not heed him, is solved by God providing three supernatural signs: changing a staff to a snake, making Moses's hand diseased and then restoring it, and turning water bloody.
Ex 4.10-17: Moses's fourth problem, that he cannot speak, is solved by God by assigning his brother to speak for him.
Ex 4.18-31: Moses returns to Egypt.
Ex 4.21: The motif of Pharaoh's headened heart (stubbornness), appearing frequently in the narrative of Moses's negotiations with the Egyptian ruler, serves to increase dramatic tension. The number ten, though never mentioned explicitly, plays a role: Pharaoh hardens his own heart (e.g., 8.15) ten times, although even then it is part of God's plan (7.3; 11.9); and ten times God hardens it directly (e.g., 9.12). These differing reports of who caused the hardening of Pharaoh's heart likely reflect different sources.
Ex 4.22: Based on the formulaic words of heralds bearing messages in the ancient Near East, the biblical expression "thus says the Lord" introduces words conveyed by a prophetic messenger of God.
Ex 4.24-26: God attacks Moses for reasons that are unclear. Did some googling. The Jewish Study Bible says: Here circumcision seems to have apotropaic (magically protective) power, and by touching her son's foreskin to Moses' "legs" (genitals?), Zipporah saved him. The saving power of the bloody foreskin may foreshadow the protective role of the blood on the Israelites' doorposts on the eve of the exodus (12.7, 13, 22-23). Bridegroom of blood, cognates of Heb “Hatan," bridegroom, mean "protect" in Akkadian and Arabic, and "circumcise" in Arabic. My personal note on this matter is that, much like Jacob, Moses is depicted as doubtful of his actions and path forward under the guidance of the Lord; possible read that this "attack" could be analagous to Jacob's wrestling with the Angel, though this is of course with the understanding that the circumcision narrative holds legitimate water as a fragmented story regardless. So this is hermeneutics, huh?
Ex 5.1-6.1: Moses and Aaron have their first encounter with Pharaoh.
Ex 5.1: The imperative "Let my people go" appears for the first time and adumbrates its sevenfold use in the account of nine divine marvels.
Ex 5.2: To "know the lord" is to recognize God's authority; knowing God is a response to witnessing his powerful deeds.
Ex 5.3: To fail to carry out religious obligations to God would have dire consequences.
Ex 5.10: Introducing Pharaoh's words with "Thus says Pharaoh" sets him in opposition to the Lord, whose words are similarly announced.
Ex 5.20-6.1: Moses complains to God who promises to take action. Interesting that Moses consciously laments his position and directly complains about God's inaction in a way not characteristic of the prior patriarchs.
Ex 6.2-7.7: God reaffirms the mission of Moses and Aaron in the light of the worsened circumstances of the people.
Ex 6.6-8: Nine verbs denoting nine divine actions connoting the totality of God's commitment; anticipates the nine signs and wonders of the next section.
Ex 6.16-25: Authority is conferred on Moses, Aaron, and Aaron's sons and grandons by situation their lineage in the priestly tribe of Levi. The unusual naming of several women (bb. 20,23,25) emphasizes the importance of the Levites.
Ex 7.1-7: Another account of the affirmation of Moses's mission.
Ex 7.7: Moses is younger than Aaron here, contradicting the firstborn tradition of 2.2, but does repeat the motif of overriding secondborns seen in prior patriarchs.
Ex 7.8-10.29: The nine marvels. The designation "ten plagues" does not appear in the Bible, and fewer than ten catastrophes appear in the two psalms that mention them (Pss 7.8.44-51 and 105.28-36) . . . The marvels narrative likely draws from several sources to form a three-triad pattern, totaling nine marvels.
Ex 7.9: Aaron has the leading role in the first episode of the marvels, which incorporate material from the Priestly source, which emphasizes Aaron as a figure in general (as the first High Priest of the Israelites). Interesting too that 7.1 mentions Aaron as being a prophet of Moses. Paints priests as the prophets of Prophets?
Ex 7.11: Magicians, derived from an Egyptian word denoting a priestly official; their "secret arts" refer to spells or incantations, whereas Aaron simply casts his staff down.
Ex 7.14-8.19: First three marvels.
Ex 7.14-25: First marvel, bloody waters. As mentioned in a prior note, this story combines two traditions, in one Moses's actions pollute the Nile only; in the other, Aaron turns all Egyptian waters into blood.
Ex 7.15: Water and river bank ,evoking the image of the infant Moses in the river, also anticipating the role of water in the final water event of the parting.
Ex 7.22: Magicians can duplicate the calamity, but again they use spells, and humorously they make the calamity even worse!
Ex 8.1-15: Second marvel, frogs.
Ex 8.8: Pharaoh momentarily relents and seems to recognize Israel's god, requests that Moses and Aaron pray on behalf of the Egyptians. Hardens his heart regardless after the fact; this will repeat time and time again.
Ex 8.16-19: Third marvel, gnats.
Ex 8.16: Dust represents what is countless (Gen 13.16).
Ex 8.19: Magicians recognize the Lord; Pharaoh refuses.
Ex 8.20-9.12: Second group of three marvels. Instrumentality shifts: God is the direct ageint, then Moses and Aaron together are agents.
Ex 8.20-32: Fourth marvel, flies.
Ex 9.1-7: Fifth marvel, pestilence. Pestilence in Deuteronomic and prophetic texts kills both humans and animals, but here only animals.
Ex 9.8-12: Seixth marvel, boils.
Ex 9.12: Now God hardens Pharaoh's heart.
Ex 9.13-10.29: Third group of three marvels.
Ex 9.13-35: Seventh marvel, hail.
Ex 9.14: Only here is "plagues" used for one of the nine marvels, perhaps because of the extensive loss of human and animal life, as for the climactic slaying of the firstborn.
Ex 9.18: The severity prompts God, uniquely, to suggest a protective measure.
Ex 9.22: Hail, frequently Yahweh's weapon (e.g., Josh 10.11, Isa 30.20; Ezek 13.13).
Ex 10.1-20: Eighth marvel, locusts.
Ex 10.2: Heralds the importance of remembering; as with 9.16, God's marvels are characterized here as being a message to humanity.
Ex 10.21-29: Ninth marvel, darkness. Darkness anticipates the midnight setting of the death of the firstborns and the nighttime sea crossing.
Ex 10.22: Three days mirrors the requested three-day journey for sacrifice and anticipates the three-day duration of the first post-Sinai journey.
Ex. 11.1-13.6: Plague, commemorative rituals, and departure.
Ex. 11.1-10: Announcement of the plague.
Ex 12.1-28: Preparations for departure: passover and unleavened bread festivals. The ritual of unleavened bread predates Exodus, the text assuming the reader would be aware, though it is joined here with the pascal lamb, connecting the two traditions under the symbolism of passover.
Ex 12.23: Representing a variant tradition, a divine agent, the "destroyer", rather than God, carries out the mission.
Ex 12.29-52: Plague, departure, and passover.
Ex 12.37-42: Departing Egypt and beginning the wilderness journey (which continues in the book of Numbers).
Ex 12.38: "Mixed crowd" suggests that non-Israelites also escape.
Ex 12.40-41: Four hundred and thirty years is close to the span of time foreordained in Gen 15.13.
Ex 12.43-51: Further passover instructions, explicitly for future observances.
Ex 13.1-16: More commemorative rituals: consecration of the firstborn, and unleavened bread festival. The firstborn is consecrated ("given", perhaps "dedicated") to Yahweh, as a form of remembrance that they are too God's firstborn, remembering that of the slaying.
Ex 13.9: "Sign . . . forehead" (also v. 16; Deut 6.6-8) denotes metaphoric modes of commemoration (as Prov 6.20-21; 7.1-3), but is interpreted literally in postexilic times, giving rise to the Jewish custom of phylacteries. First mention of "teaching (Hebrew: Torah) of the Lord" in the Bible.
Ex 13.17-15.21: Journey to and through the sea, described in prose and poetry.
Ex 13.17-14.31: The narrative account, with its repetitions, contradictions, non sequiturs, and inconsistencies, is a composite.
Ex 13.17: Way of the land of the Philistines, the shortest land route from Egypt to Canaan, runs parallel to the Mediterranean coast toward southwest Canaan where the Philistines, an Aegean people, settled in the late thirteenth and early twelfth centuries BCE.
Ex 13.18: Red sea, properly Reed Sea, likely designates the reedy marshes of northeastern Egypt. The following miraculous sea-splitting account does not fit the marshland referent and reflects a different, perhaps imaginary or mythological, sea tradition.
Ex 13.21: Pillars of cloud and fire, likely the manifestation of the divine presence, shielded in cloud by day and fire by night.
Ex 14.1: Moses acts alone, without Aaron, in the sea-crossing episode.
Ex 14.14: God as the Divine Warrior, based on the Canaanite deity Baal.
Ex 14.19-20: Angel and pillar, both manifestations of God's presence, likely from different sources.
Ex 14.21: Wind, dry land, and divided waters, which evoke creation (Gen 1.2,6,9; cf. Gen 8.2), are from a Priestly hand.
Ex 15.1-21: The Song of the Sea is a lyric victory hymn generally considered an originally independent composition, one of the oldest literary units in the Bible, perhaps from the tewlfth century BCE. Influenced by mythic accounts of the Divinie Warrior's battle with watery chaos (see 14.14n.), it is rich in metaphors and terms that preclude single explanations and at times even defy comprehension; in many details it diverges from the prose accont in ch 14.
Ex 15.1: Although attributed here to Moses, this poem was originally attributed to Miriam, given the association of women with the victory song genre; "I" need not be moses.
Ex 15.6: The right hand of God, not Moses's hand, directly vanquishes the enemy.
Ex 15.11: "Among the gods" may be language of Israelite monolatry, in which the existence of other gods is acknowledged (18.11; 20.3; 23.32-33).
Ex 15.12: Earth, referring to the underworld, Sheol, swallowing the living (Num 16.32; Isa 29.4; Prov 1.12).
Ex 15.18: Reign introduces for the first time the prominent biblical metaphor of God as king.
Ex 15.22-24.18: Sinai and covenant.
Ex 15.22-18.27: Crises and reorganization in the wilderness.
Ex 15.22-27: First crisis, lack of water.
Ex 16.1-36: Second crises, lack of food.
Ex 16.23-30: Instructions for the sabbath as a day of rest on the seventh day precede the Decalogue's sabbath commandment; sabbath observance is part of Israel's learning to obey God.
Ex 16.33-34: Covenant, elliptical for the not-yet-announced "ark of the covenant", is parallel to Lord, indicating that the ark signifies God's presence.
Ex 16.35: Forty years of wandering.
Ex 17.1-7: Third crisis, lack of water.
Ex 17.7: Among us [in real life (sus, sus)]; an expression denoting God's potent presence, which provides food or water and protection for the Israelites.
Ex 17.8-16: Fourth crisis, military threat.
Ex 17.8: Amalek refers to a seminomadic group and habitual enemy of the Israelites; they are not atested to in nonbiblical sources.
Ex 17.9-13: First mention of Joshua; one of seven in Exodus. Moses, holding his staff, is assisted by Aaron and Hur, holding up his arms during the battle against Amalek in which the Israelites (headed by Joshua) prevail so long as Moses's arms stay raised.
Ex 18.1-27: Meeting with Jethro, who solves an organizational crisis. Jethro prompts Moses to lessen the load on his shoulders in mediating disputes; instead a hierarchy of administrative officials ("judges") are organized so as to share the burden (first indication of a priestly class after Aaron?). In the retelling of this episode in Deut 1.9-18, the initative is Moses's alone. Worth mentioning too that Jethro was likely some form of polytheist, as it is mentioned he is a priest of the Midianites, though recognizing Yahweh as being worthy of worship for his actions within the Exodus.
Ex 19.1-25: Revelation at the mountain.
Ex 19.1: The location of Sinai is uncertain. Some passages locate it in southern Jordan; the traditional site in the southern Sinai Peninsula is unlikely.
Ex 19.4: Reminder of God's actions as preface to the convenant is typical of Near Eastern treaties between a stronger and weaker party.
Ex 19.6: "Priestly kingdom . . . holy nation" poetically presents all Israelites as priests: they will have privileges of intimacy with God and responsibilities of physical and moral purity.
Ex 20.1-24.18: Covenant. The stipulations of the covenant—Decalogue (20.1-17) and covenant rules (20.22-23.19)—are interspersed with additional Sinai narratives (20.18-21; 23.20-24.18).
Ex 20.1-17: Decalogue (also Deut 5.6-21). These "Ten commandments," also found with some variations in Deuteronomy 5, are not numbered or titled here but are later called "ten words," that is, "ten sayings" or "ten matters" in 34.28; Deut 4.13; 10.4 (see 18.26n.; 35.1n.). Set forth in apodictic (absolute) form, they are not universal laws nor a concise summary of biblical law. Rather, they are unconditional community precepts, both injunctions and prohibitions, rather than laws, which typically have punishments. Unlike any other ancient Near Eastern materials, the Decalogue creates moral standards for a society; obedience is to be a function of divine authority, not fear of punishment. Containing more than ten statements, and not numbered in the Bible, they are counted in diverse ways.
Numbering of the Decalogue in Exodus 20.1-17 [according to most Jewish traditions]:
1 Ex 20.2 (divine self-identification)
2 Ex 20.3 (other gods)
2 Ex 20.4-6 (idols)
3 Ex 20.7 (divine name)
4 Ex 20.8-11 (sabbath)
5 Ex 20.12 (parents)
6 Ex 20.13 (murder)
7 Ex 20.14 (adultery)
8 Ex 20.15 (theft)
9 Ex 20.16 (perjury)
10 Ex 20.17a (coveting)
10 Ex 20.17b (coveting)
The first several deal with human obligations to God and are accompanied by motive clauses (explanations); the others concern social issues and usually do not mention God. Because its pronouns are all second-person masculine singular, the Decalogue seems to address individually adult men responsible for land-holding Israelite households with servants (as v. 17), with its stipulations otherwise applying to all people as appropriate.
Ex 20.3: Does not deny the existence of other gods, only that they shall not be worshipped before Yahweh.
Ex 20.4-6: Worship of God without anthropomorphic images; perhaps to distinguish from other religions. Possible influence from Zoroastrianism (lack of images, emphasis on fire?).
Ex 20.5: A jealous (sometimes "zealous") God; implies transgenerational guilt (see 34.7; cf. Ge 15.16), but is sometimes rejected (Jer 31.20-30; Ezek 18).
Ex 20.14: Adultery, sexual intercourse between a man and a married or betrothed woman, is a grave offense (Lev 20.10; Deut 22.22) because lineages could be compromised by this infidelity.
Ex 20.18-21: The Sinai account resumes, with the people insisting that Moses transmit God's word.
Ex 20.22-23.33: Community regulations. This collection of legal materials, called "book of the covenant" [Hebrew: "sefer ha-berit"] (24.7) or "Covenant Code" or "Covenant Collection," has affinities of form and content with other ancient law legal traditions. A discrete scribal collection, with laws—especially agricultural ones and those mentioning houses—inapplicable to a wilderness setting, it was likely incorporated into the Sinai narrative to afford it divine authority. The oldest of the legal materials in the Pentateuch, many of its stipulations probably arose in premonarchic village settings. Introductory instructions (20.22-26) and a concluding narrative (23.20-33) frame a two-part enumeration of legal materials. The first part (21.1-22.17) consists mainly of casuistic materials (case laws with attached punishments). The second part (22.18-23.19) comprises ethical or religious norms and exhortations typically expressed in apodictic or absolute form. These two parts may reflect the merging of ancient customary regulations with covenant-oriented materials.
Ex 20.22-26: Introductory instructions. Sacrifice can take place wherever people invoke God's name (presence); contrast 27.1-8 and the single "place" for sacrifice in Deuteronomy (Deut 12.5-14, etc.).
Ex 21.1-22.20: Ordinances (rulings) and statutes (rules). In form and content, this section resembles other ancient Near Eastern legal collections.
Ex 21.2-11: Manumission regulations for indentured Israelite servants. Laws dealing with servitude usually come at the end of ancient Near Eastern law collections; here they are first, indicating the humanitarian interests of the "book of the covenant" and/or its placement immediately after Israel's liberation from slavery.
Ex 21.33-22.15: Property and restitution, more case rulings.
Ex 22.16-20: Social and religious stipulations.
Ex 22.21-23.19: Ethical and religious exhortations and norms.
Ex 23.1-12: Judicial integrity and the protection of animals and marginal groups.
Ex 23.20-33: The Sinai narrative resumes with further divine promises and admonitions.
Ex 23.22: "Enemy . . . foes" employs Near Eastern treaty language.
Ex 23.25-26: Sustenance, health, and progeny are the blessings produced by covenant fealty (Lev 26.3-10; Deut 28.1-6).
Ex 23.27-30: First real taste of OT genocide: The land's indigenous inhabitants will be gradually expelled; in Deuteronomy and related literature, they are to be exterminated (e.g., Deut 7.2; Josh 10-11).
Ex 24.1-18: Theophanies and covenant ceremonies. Repetitive or conflicting details again indicate a composite narrative about God's appearance—to Moses and the leaders, and to Moses alone.
Ex 25-40: Sanctuary and new covenant. The focus of the rest of Exodus is the construction of the wilderness tabernacle as an earthly home for God. Detailed directions for building the portable shrine (25.1-27.1; 30.1-31.18) and for clothing and inaugurating its priests (28.1-29.46) are followed by an account of its construction so God's presence can enter (35.1-40.38). Much of the information in the second section is the same as in the first, although the internal order differs. Between the two sections comes the golden calf episode (chs 32-34), in which the covenant is broken and restored. Did some preemptive googling on the tabernacle. Professor of Theology Michael Homan posits that the tabernacle could have been based on Rameses II’s military tent, as they share various traits in dimensions, method of construction, internal specifics and general use, the tent in question being depicted in various instances of Egyptian iconography that would have been apparent to ancient scholars: The depiction of YHWH’s sacred tent as modeled on a military tent fits with biblical context of YHWH as a "Divine Warrior."
Ex 25.1-31.18: Instructions for building the tabernacle and inaugurating the priesthood.
Ex 26.1-37: The tabernacle structure.
Ex 27.1-19: The courtyard and its altar.
Ex 28.1-43: Vestments for the priests.
Ex 28.1: Aaron has appeared frequently but is first called priest here. No title is given for him in the Pentateuch; the titles "high priest" and "chief priest" are in non-Torah texts.
Ex 28.3: Women are not specifically excluded from contributing materials to the priesthood.
Ex 28.6-30: The engraved stones of the high priest represent the tribes of Israel, as such the wearer embodies all Israel, and any oracles received apply to all Israelites. The Urim and Thummim are usually interperted to mean marked pebbles or rocks that are cast or thrown to secure divine decisions, a form of divination.
Ex 28.36-38: Engraved rosette with the words "Holy to the Lord" as a protective measure is reminiscent of the much later solomonic tradition of seals.
Ex 29.1-46: Consecration of the priests.
Ex 29.20: Sprinkling the ram's blood on the priests' extremities (lobes . . . thumbs . . . toes), which represent their entire bodies, substitutes animal blood and death for that of the priests; their symbolic death means they belong to God.
Ex 30.1-31.18: Additional instructions.
Ex 31.1-11: Artisans.
Ex 31.11: "Do . . . commanded" implies that human creativity is subordinated to divine inspiration.
Ex 31.12: The phrase "The Lord said to Moses" is used here for a seventh time in conjunction with discussion on the sabbath; another use of the number 7.
Ex 32.1-34.35: Covenant violation and restoration. The golden-calf apostacy (also Deut 9.7-21; Ps 106.19-23; Neh 9.16-21) interrupts the tabernacle sequence, yet it parallels it in some ways: a command to construct, contributions of gold, construction, an altar and sacrifices. It thus contrasts the proper response to God in the chapters following this section, with the sinful one it describes.
Ex 32.1-35: Sin, divine anger, and several intercessions by Moses. This episode shares many details with the account of Jeroboam (first king of the northern kingdom, 928-907 BCE) erecting golden calves in Dan and Bethel (1 Kings 12.28-33; see also Deut 9.7-10.11).
Ex 32.13: Moses reminds God that the ancestral covenant is unconditional and irrevocable (Gen 13.15-16; etc.).
Ex 32.26-29: The shocking violence of the Levites, perhaps reflecting an ancient power struggle, earns them eternal priesthood. Worth noting that Aaron is allowed to live despite his involvement in this perverse act; perhaps [written as such] because the priesthood in later times was traced to him.
Ex 33.1-23: The divine presence is secured through a third plea by Moses.
Ex 33.7: Mention of a tent shrine in this passage distinct from the previously introduced tabernacle indicates that Exodus combines several traditions about a community shrine.
Ex 34.1-35: Covenant restoration and Moses's fourth plea to God. Here we find the so-named "Ritual Decalogue", indicated by the text to be the "Ten Commandments" commonly attributed to the formerly seen "Ethical" Decalogue of Exodus 20. It differs from the prior Decalogue in that this one focuses on largely ritual matters, leading some to believe it was a redactional supplement in order to bolster later Priestly concerns; others still believe it may be the earliest form of the Decalogue before the Ethical Decalogue was introduced due to shifting social concerns, leaving the Ritual Decalogue an aberrant remnant despite its status as being apparently representative of God's second fling regarding a Mosaic covenant.
Ex 34.29,35: "Shone" and "shining", better "radiant." The verb used here (from the Hebrew root "qrn") means "to radiate." The related noun "qeren," usually meaning "horn," has produced the erroneous notion that Moses had horns.
Ex 35-40: The tabernacle is constructed, and God's presence enters it. These chapters contain nearly verbatim repetitions of many passages of chs 25-31, except that they describe actions taken (rather than commanded) and are arranged according to pragmatic construction concerns rather than degree of sanctity.
Ex 38.8: Women worked as low-rank temple servitors, and they were allowed to enter the entrance to the tent of meeting, the highly significant site of Moses's oracular interactions with God.
Ex 39.1-31: Vestments (see 28.1-43). Moses's name here appears seven times, indicating his total involvement.
Ex 39.32: "Work . . . finished" echoes the Priestly language of Gen 2.2, as does 40.33; the construction of the tabernacle,, a microcosm of the cosmos, thus echoes creation. "Tabernacle of the tent of meeting", used only here and in 40.2,6,29, combines the two designations of the wilderness shrine and thus its two functions: a place for God's earthly presence, and a locale for oracular interactions.
Ex 40.1-38: Erection of the tabernacle, and God's presence filling it.
That's Exodus done. Surprised to find that half the book is spent on repeatedly redundant descriptions of the tabernacle as well as Moses's numerous ascents and descents of the mountain, but beyond that, we are all very familiar with the story of Exodus. As with Genesis, not much to add in totality; I don't know if I'll have parting words for each independent book, most of my personal observations are included within the notes I make themselves. Leviticus, then.
Then, out of the stars
So, out of the stars
Bloodied and broken, accord to the word
So, when the time comes
Oh, when the time comes
To broker anew, you make your voice heard
For what has been said
Intends to be kept;
In anguish repaid, to anguish incurred
As then, the word, so now, the word, so now, the word, as then
Introduction to Exodus
"Exodus," from the Latinized abbreviation of the Greek title exodos aigyptou ("exit from Egypt").
The second book of the Bible in all canonical traditions, Exodus is not an independent work but rather an integral part of the Torah. Traditionally taken as being written by Moses, as mentioned in the introduction to Genesis, this can not be so. Like the rest of the Pentateuch, Exodus contains contradictions and redundancies. For example, Moses' father-in-law is sometimes called Reuel and sometimes Jethro; and the mountains of revelation is Sinai in some passages and Horeb in others. The narratives of Moses on the mountain in chs 19 and 24 have many overlapping and conflicting details, as does the account of the calamities—called "ten plagues" in postbiblical tradition but not in the Bible—against the Egyptians in 7.8-10.29.
Exodus depicts a story line describing the departure of a group of oppressed people from Egypt to a sacred mountain in Sinai where they enter into a covenant with the God they believed rescued them; then, at that God's direction, they construct a portable shrine for their deity before continuing their journey.
Historicity is once more questioned here; the literary strands comprising this text date from many centuries after the date described, and no historical or archaeological records support the claims made of an Egyptian exodus nor the travel of such a people across the continent. This extends too to the conquest of the land of Israel by Joshua.
Despite these problems, the basic story line about the departure from Egypt fits broad evidence from Egyptian and other sources. Foreigners from western Asia, called "Asiatics" in Egyptian documents, periodically did migrate to Egypt, especially during times of famine (see Gen 12.10; 41.57; 43.1-2); others were taken to Egypt as military captives or were forcibly sent there as human tribute by Canaanite rulers. Moreover, many such groups, including those who voluntarily entered Egypt, were conscripted for state projects (see Ex 1.11-14). This pattern was especially strong toward the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1400-1200 BCE). And, although virtually all of the foreigners in Egypt were assimilated into local culture, there is at least one documented instance of several workers escaping into the Sinai wilderness. Thus the overall pattern of descent into Egypt followed by servitude and escape accords with general information in ancient documents. In addition, the end of the Late Bronze Age, by which time the Israelites would have left Egypt, coincides with the date of inscriptional evidence—a stele erected by Pharaoh Merneptah in ca. 1209 BCE—for a people called "Israel" in the land of Canaan, the first mention of Israel outside the Bible.
The writer of this introduction, Carol Meyers, theorizes here of how it is possible that a relatively small group of people could have escaped servitude and told of their story in Canaan, thus setting in motion an oral tale that developed into the mythology attributed to Yahweh as told in Exodus. It's an interesting theory, and I dont doubt that the oral tradition that lead to the formulation of the Torah was indeed comprised of some such tales. Good fun!
The book can be subdivided into thematic and literary units in various ways; this one positions the revelation at Sinai and the covenant in the center:
Part I: Israel in and out of Egypt (1.1-15.21): God sees Israelite suffering in Egypt (chs 1-2), Moses becomes God's spokesperson (3.1-7.7), and a series of calamities (7.7-13.16), known in tradition as the "ten plagues," culminate in the escape of the people (13.17-15.21).
Part II: Sinai and covenant (15.22-24.18): After traveling through the wilderness (15.22-18.27), the Israelites reach Mount Sinai, where they experience a theophany (a divine appearance, chs 19, 24), and receive the covenant (chs 20-23).
Part III: Sanctuary and new covenant (25:1-40:34): An episode of apostasy followed by covenant renewal (chs 32-34) separates instructions for building the sanctuary (chs 25-31) from the account of its construction (chs 35-40).
Exodus would have been an important literary tool and item of faith for Judeans suffering defeat and exile in the sixth century BCE, as the fundamental ideas about God expressed in this text, such as his care for the oppressed as well as his liberation of the people in Egypt would have helped alleviate their concerns and reinforce their status and understanding of themselves as a distinct people under YHWH.
Exodus
Ex 1.1-15.21: Israel in and out of Egypt. The Israelites are oppressed in Egypt; but they escape through the intervention of their God, whose identity is revealed to their heroic leader Moses, who then carries out God's directives to secure their release.
Ex 1.1-22: The oppression of the Israelites. Prologue to bridge Genesis with Exodus.
Ex 1.1-7: "Israel" referring to Jacob. In Scripture, seven often symbolizes completion or perfection; the notion of seventy descendants of Jacob signifies that all Israel is present in Egypt. Emphasis on Israelite proliferation serves to indicate that God's divine promises are now fulfilled through Israel.
Ex 1.8: The king described is commonly identified as Rameses II (1279-1213 BCE), but he is not named here or anywhere in the Bible, possibly as a means of demeaning him.
Ex 1.10: Possibility of Israelite escape mentioned as an act of foreshadowing.
Ex 1.15-22: Forced labor fails to deplete the Israelite population; selective infanticide is thus implemented.
Ex 1.15: "Hebrew" seems to denote Israelites as a people, often in the speech of non-Israelites, where it may be a derogatory term.
Ex 1.17: "Feared God" indicates an awareness that killing would cause divine retribution.
Ex 2.1-25: The emergence of Moses.
Ex 2.1-10: As in the birth legends of other heroic figures in ancient literature, the miraculous rescue of the doomed infant Moses signifies that he is destined for greatness.
Ex 2.2: "Saw that he was a fine baby", lit., "saw that he was good," echoes the language of creation in Gen 1.
Ex 2.3: The hebrew word for basket appears elsewhere in the Bible only to refer to Noah's ark; here it is the means for rescuing the person who will save the Israelites.
Ex 2.10: As an Egyptian name, Moses means "is born", and it is often used in conjunction with a god's name, e.g., Thutmoses, Ahmoses, Rameses, but here it is given a Hebrew etymology ("he who draws out") in anticipation of Moses's role in drawing his people through the sea.
Ex 2.11-15: In the first two episodes of his adult life, Moses saves one Hebrew and tries to adjudicate between two others; both roles will recur and involve all his people.
Ex 2.17: Saved by the daughter of a king, Moses saves the daughters of a priest: the motif of saving recurs, anticipating the ultimate salvation or deliverance at the sea (13.17-15.21).
Ex 2.18: Reuel, elsewhere called Jethro or Hobab, likely reflecting different ancient sources.
Ex 2.23-25: It is only now that it is indicated that God becomse aware of the Israelite plight in Egypt, "remembering" his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
Ex 3.1-4.17: Moses's call and mission. The god of the ancestors appears to Moses in Midian, revealing the divine name and commisions Moses to free his people; the term "prophet" is not used for Moses within Exodus, but the narrative presents him as one.
Ex 3.1-10: Theophany: a divine revelation at the bush, where serveral sources have been combined.
Ex 3.2: An "angel" (lit., "messenger") is a manifestation of God, who sometimes takes human form. God's physical presence also appears shielded in clouds and fire (e.g., Ex 19.9; 24.15-18; 33.9; 40.34-38), both sometimes depicted as pillars (Ex 13.21; 14.19,24); seeing God directly can be dangerous (see 3.6n).
Ex 3.6: Divine presence represents such intense, mysterious, and powerful holiness that it was considered dangerous to humans, hence Moses's reluctance to look at God's (physical) manifestation.
Ex 3.8: "Come down," implying that God resides in a heavenly abode.
Ex 3.11-17: Prophets are often reluctant, and Moses confronts God with four problematic issues.
Ex 3.11-12: Moses's first problem is a sense of unworthiness.
Ex 3.13-15: The next problem is not knowing God's name. Deities were identified by their proper names (not by generic "God"), and the Israelites will want to know which god has sent Moses to them. I am who I am (Hebrew "'ehyeh 'asher 'ehyeh") renders the first name that God provides; a shortened form, I am ("'ehyeh"), renders the second. These translations are uncertain, however, for the Hebrew is ambiguous. The third name is "Lord", which has four Hebrew letters, "yhwh" (probably pronounced Yahweh) in Hebrew and is thus known as the Tetragrammaton. Like the first two versions of God's name, its root means "to be" but its specific meaning is unclear. Because of the great sanctity of God's name, early Jewish tradition avoided pronouncing it and used the Hebrew word "adonay" ("my lord") as a substitte. Most translations respect that tradition and use Lord for the deity's proper name. According to Gen 4.26 (see also Gen 13.4), people knew God's name early in human history; but this passage along with 6.3 preserves a different tradition, that Moses is the first to hear it. In ancient nonbiblical sources this divine name is known from a Late Bronze Age inscription that mentions the "Shasu of ya-h-wa [or yhw]"; the Shasu were desert-dwellers and included Midianites.
Ex 3.16-22: A directive to Moses about speaking to his people and Pharaoh precedes other two problems.
Ex 3.16: "Elders" of Israel, referring to representatives of the people in community governance (see also 4.29; 12.21; 17.5,6; 18.12; 19.7; 24.1,9,14).
Ex 3.18: God of the Hebrews, connecting the Lord to a specific people when addressed to non-Israelites.
Ex 4.1-9: Moses's third problem, that people will not heed him, is solved by God providing three supernatural signs: changing a staff to a snake, making Moses's hand diseased and then restoring it, and turning water bloody.
Ex 4.10-17: Moses's fourth problem, that he cannot speak, is solved by God by assigning his brother to speak for him.
Ex 4.18-31: Moses returns to Egypt.
Ex 4.21: The motif of Pharaoh's headened heart (stubbornness), appearing frequently in the narrative of Moses's negotiations with the Egyptian ruler, serves to increase dramatic tension. The number ten, though never mentioned explicitly, plays a role: Pharaoh hardens his own heart (e.g., 8.15) ten times, although even then it is part of God's plan (7.3; 11.9); and ten times God hardens it directly (e.g., 9.12). These differing reports of who caused the hardening of Pharaoh's heart likely reflect different sources.
Ex 4.22: Based on the formulaic words of heralds bearing messages in the ancient Near East, the biblical expression "thus says the Lord" introduces words conveyed by a prophetic messenger of God.
Ex 4.24-26: God attacks Moses for reasons that are unclear. Did some googling. The Jewish Study Bible says: Here circumcision seems to have apotropaic (magically protective) power, and by touching her son's foreskin to Moses' "legs" (genitals?), Zipporah saved him. The saving power of the bloody foreskin may foreshadow the protective role of the blood on the Israelites' doorposts on the eve of the exodus (12.7, 13, 22-23). Bridegroom of blood, cognates of Heb “Hatan," bridegroom, mean "protect" in Akkadian and Arabic, and "circumcise" in Arabic. My personal note on this matter is that, much like Jacob, Moses is depicted as doubtful of his actions and path forward under the guidance of the Lord; possible read that this "attack" could be analagous to Jacob's wrestling with the Angel, though this is of course with the understanding that the circumcision narrative holds legitimate water as a fragmented story regardless. So this is hermeneutics, huh?
Ex 5.1-6.1: Moses and Aaron have their first encounter with Pharaoh.
Ex 5.1: The imperative "Let my people go" appears for the first time and adumbrates its sevenfold use in the account of nine divine marvels.
Ex 5.2: To "know the lord" is to recognize God's authority; knowing God is a response to witnessing his powerful deeds.
Ex 5.3: To fail to carry out religious obligations to God would have dire consequences.
Ex 5.10: Introducing Pharaoh's words with "Thus says Pharaoh" sets him in opposition to the Lord, whose words are similarly announced.
Ex 5.20-6.1: Moses complains to God who promises to take action. Interesting that Moses consciously laments his position and directly complains about God's inaction in a way not characteristic of the prior patriarchs.
Ex 6.2-7.7: God reaffirms the mission of Moses and Aaron in the light of the worsened circumstances of the people.
Ex 6.6-8: Nine verbs denoting nine divine actions connoting the totality of God's commitment; anticipates the nine signs and wonders of the next section.
Ex 6.16-25: Authority is conferred on Moses, Aaron, and Aaron's sons and grandons by situation their lineage in the priestly tribe of Levi. The unusual naming of several women (bb. 20,23,25) emphasizes the importance of the Levites.
Ex 7.1-7: Another account of the affirmation of Moses's mission.
Ex 7.7: Moses is younger than Aaron here, contradicting the firstborn tradition of 2.2, but does repeat the motif of overriding secondborns seen in prior patriarchs.
Ex 7.8-10.29: The nine marvels. The designation "ten plagues" does not appear in the Bible, and fewer than ten catastrophes appear in the two psalms that mention them (Pss 7.8.44-51 and 105.28-36) . . . The marvels narrative likely draws from several sources to form a three-triad pattern, totaling nine marvels.
Ex 7.9: Aaron has the leading role in the first episode of the marvels, which incorporate material from the Priestly source, which emphasizes Aaron as a figure in general (as the first High Priest of the Israelites). Interesting too that 7.1 mentions Aaron as being a prophet of Moses. Paints priests as the prophets of Prophets?
Ex 7.11: Magicians, derived from an Egyptian word denoting a priestly official; their "secret arts" refer to spells or incantations, whereas Aaron simply casts his staff down.
Ex 7.14-8.19: First three marvels.
Ex 7.14-25: First marvel, bloody waters. As mentioned in a prior note, this story combines two traditions, in one Moses's actions pollute the Nile only; in the other, Aaron turns all Egyptian waters into blood.
Ex 7.15: Water and river bank ,evoking the image of the infant Moses in the river, also anticipating the role of water in the final water event of the parting.
Ex 7.22: Magicians can duplicate the calamity, but again they use spells, and humorously they make the calamity even worse!
Ex 8.1-15: Second marvel, frogs.
Ex 8.8: Pharaoh momentarily relents and seems to recognize Israel's god, requests that Moses and Aaron pray on behalf of the Egyptians. Hardens his heart regardless after the fact; this will repeat time and time again.
Ex 8.16-19: Third marvel, gnats.
Ex 8.16: Dust represents what is countless (Gen 13.16).
Ex 8.19: Magicians recognize the Lord; Pharaoh refuses.
Ex 8.20-9.12: Second group of three marvels. Instrumentality shifts: God is the direct ageint, then Moses and Aaron together are agents.
Ex 8.20-32: Fourth marvel, flies.
Ex 9.1-7: Fifth marvel, pestilence. Pestilence in Deuteronomic and prophetic texts kills both humans and animals, but here only animals.
Ex 9.8-12: Seixth marvel, boils.
Ex 9.12: Now God hardens Pharaoh's heart.
Ex 9.13-10.29: Third group of three marvels.
Ex 9.13-35: Seventh marvel, hail.
Ex 9.14: Only here is "plagues" used for one of the nine marvels, perhaps because of the extensive loss of human and animal life, as for the climactic slaying of the firstborn.
Ex 9.18: The severity prompts God, uniquely, to suggest a protective measure.
Ex 9.22: Hail, frequently Yahweh's weapon (e.g., Josh 10.11, Isa 30.20; Ezek 13.13).
Ex 10.1-20: Eighth marvel, locusts.
Ex 10.2: Heralds the importance of remembering; as with 9.16, God's marvels are characterized here as being a message to humanity.
Ex 10.21-29: Ninth marvel, darkness. Darkness anticipates the midnight setting of the death of the firstborns and the nighttime sea crossing.
Ex 10.22: Three days mirrors the requested three-day journey for sacrifice and anticipates the three-day duration of the first post-Sinai journey.
Ex. 11.1-13.6: Plague, commemorative rituals, and departure.
Ex. 11.1-10: Announcement of the plague.
Ex 12.1-28: Preparations for departure: passover and unleavened bread festivals. The ritual of unleavened bread predates Exodus, the text assuming the reader would be aware, though it is joined here with the pascal lamb, connecting the two traditions under the symbolism of passover.
Ex 12.23: Representing a variant tradition, a divine agent, the "destroyer", rather than God, carries out the mission.
Ex 12.29-52: Plague, departure, and passover.
Ex 12.37-42: Departing Egypt and beginning the wilderness journey (which continues in the book of Numbers).
Ex 12.38: "Mixed crowd" suggests that non-Israelites also escape.
Ex 12.40-41: Four hundred and thirty years is close to the span of time foreordained in Gen 15.13.
Ex 12.43-51: Further passover instructions, explicitly for future observances.
Ex 13.1-16: More commemorative rituals: consecration of the firstborn, and unleavened bread festival. The firstborn is consecrated ("given", perhaps "dedicated") to Yahweh, as a form of remembrance that they are too God's firstborn, remembering that of the slaying.
Ex 13.9: "Sign . . . forehead" (also v. 16; Deut 6.6-8) denotes metaphoric modes of commemoration (as Prov 6.20-21; 7.1-3), but is interpreted literally in postexilic times, giving rise to the Jewish custom of phylacteries. First mention of "teaching (Hebrew: Torah) of the Lord" in the Bible.
Ex 13.17-15.21: Journey to and through the sea, described in prose and poetry.
Ex 13.17-14.31: The narrative account, with its repetitions, contradictions, non sequiturs, and inconsistencies, is a composite.
Ex 13.17: Way of the land of the Philistines, the shortest land route from Egypt to Canaan, runs parallel to the Mediterranean coast toward southwest Canaan where the Philistines, an Aegean people, settled in the late thirteenth and early twelfth centuries BCE.
Ex 13.18: Red sea, properly Reed Sea, likely designates the reedy marshes of northeastern Egypt. The following miraculous sea-splitting account does not fit the marshland referent and reflects a different, perhaps imaginary or mythological, sea tradition.
Ex 13.21: Pillars of cloud and fire, likely the manifestation of the divine presence, shielded in cloud by day and fire by night.
Ex 14.1: Moses acts alone, without Aaron, in the sea-crossing episode.
Ex 14.14: God as the Divine Warrior, based on the Canaanite deity Baal.
Ex 14.19-20: Angel and pillar, both manifestations of God's presence, likely from different sources.
Ex 14.21: Wind, dry land, and divided waters, which evoke creation (Gen 1.2,6,9; cf. Gen 8.2), are from a Priestly hand.
Ex 15.1-21: The Song of the Sea is a lyric victory hymn generally considered an originally independent composition, one of the oldest literary units in the Bible, perhaps from the tewlfth century BCE. Influenced by mythic accounts of the Divinie Warrior's battle with watery chaos (see 14.14n.), it is rich in metaphors and terms that preclude single explanations and at times even defy comprehension; in many details it diverges from the prose accont in ch 14.
Ex 15.1: Although attributed here to Moses, this poem was originally attributed to Miriam, given the association of women with the victory song genre; "I" need not be moses.
Ex 15.6: The right hand of God, not Moses's hand, directly vanquishes the enemy.
Ex 15.11: "Among the gods" may be language of Israelite monolatry, in which the existence of other gods is acknowledged (18.11; 20.3; 23.32-33).
Ex 15.12: Earth, referring to the underworld, Sheol, swallowing the living (Num 16.32; Isa 29.4; Prov 1.12).
Ex 15.18: Reign introduces for the first time the prominent biblical metaphor of God as king.
Ex 15.22-24.18: Sinai and covenant.
Ex 15.22-18.27: Crises and reorganization in the wilderness.
Ex 15.22-27: First crisis, lack of water.
Ex 16.1-36: Second crises, lack of food.
Ex 16.23-30: Instructions for the sabbath as a day of rest on the seventh day precede the Decalogue's sabbath commandment; sabbath observance is part of Israel's learning to obey God.
Ex 16.33-34: Covenant, elliptical for the not-yet-announced "ark of the covenant", is parallel to Lord, indicating that the ark signifies God's presence.
Ex 16.35: Forty years of wandering.
Ex 17.1-7: Third crisis, lack of water.
Ex 17.7: Among us [in real life (sus, sus)]; an expression denoting God's potent presence, which provides food or water and protection for the Israelites.
Ex 17.8-16: Fourth crisis, military threat.
Ex 17.8: Amalek refers to a seminomadic group and habitual enemy of the Israelites; they are not atested to in nonbiblical sources.
Ex 17.9-13: First mention of Joshua; one of seven in Exodus. Moses, holding his staff, is assisted by Aaron and Hur, holding up his arms during the battle against Amalek in which the Israelites (headed by Joshua) prevail so long as Moses's arms stay raised.
Ex 18.1-27: Meeting with Jethro, who solves an organizational crisis. Jethro prompts Moses to lessen the load on his shoulders in mediating disputes; instead a hierarchy of administrative officials ("judges") are organized so as to share the burden (first indication of a priestly class after Aaron?). In the retelling of this episode in Deut 1.9-18, the initative is Moses's alone. Worth mentioning too that Jethro was likely some form of polytheist, as it is mentioned he is a priest of the Midianites, though recognizing Yahweh as being worthy of worship for his actions within the Exodus.
Ex 19.1-25: Revelation at the mountain.
Ex 19.1: The location of Sinai is uncertain. Some passages locate it in southern Jordan; the traditional site in the southern Sinai Peninsula is unlikely.
Ex 19.4: Reminder of God's actions as preface to the convenant is typical of Near Eastern treaties between a stronger and weaker party.
Ex 19.6: "Priestly kingdom . . . holy nation" poetically presents all Israelites as priests: they will have privileges of intimacy with God and responsibilities of physical and moral purity.
Ex 20.1-24.18: Covenant. The stipulations of the covenant—Decalogue (20.1-17) and covenant rules (20.22-23.19)—are interspersed with additional Sinai narratives (20.18-21; 23.20-24.18).
Ex 20.1-17: Decalogue (also Deut 5.6-21). These "Ten commandments," also found with some variations in Deuteronomy 5, are not numbered or titled here but are later called "ten words," that is, "ten sayings" or "ten matters" in 34.28; Deut 4.13; 10.4 (see 18.26n.; 35.1n.). Set forth in apodictic (absolute) form, they are not universal laws nor a concise summary of biblical law. Rather, they are unconditional community precepts, both injunctions and prohibitions, rather than laws, which typically have punishments. Unlike any other ancient Near Eastern materials, the Decalogue creates moral standards for a society; obedience is to be a function of divine authority, not fear of punishment. Containing more than ten statements, and not numbered in the Bible, they are counted in diverse ways.
Numbering of the Decalogue in Exodus 20.1-17 [according to most Jewish traditions]:
1 Ex 20.2 (divine self-identification)
2 Ex 20.3 (other gods)
2 Ex 20.4-6 (idols)
3 Ex 20.7 (divine name)
4 Ex 20.8-11 (sabbath)
5 Ex 20.12 (parents)
6 Ex 20.13 (murder)
7 Ex 20.14 (adultery)
8 Ex 20.15 (theft)
9 Ex 20.16 (perjury)
10 Ex 20.17a (coveting)
10 Ex 20.17b (coveting)
The first several deal with human obligations to God and are accompanied by motive clauses (explanations); the others concern social issues and usually do not mention God. Because its pronouns are all second-person masculine singular, the Decalogue seems to address individually adult men responsible for land-holding Israelite households with servants (as v. 17), with its stipulations otherwise applying to all people as appropriate.
Ex 20.3: Does not deny the existence of other gods, only that they shall not be worshipped before Yahweh.
Ex 20.4-6: Worship of God without anthropomorphic images; perhaps to distinguish from other religions. Possible influence from Zoroastrianism (lack of images, emphasis on fire?).
Ex 20.5: A jealous (sometimes "zealous") God; implies transgenerational guilt (see 34.7; cf. Ge 15.16), but is sometimes rejected (Jer 31.20-30; Ezek 18).
Ex 20.14: Adultery, sexual intercourse between a man and a married or betrothed woman, is a grave offense (Lev 20.10; Deut 22.22) because lineages could be compromised by this infidelity.
Ex 20.18-21: The Sinai account resumes, with the people insisting that Moses transmit God's word.
Ex 20.22-23.33: Community regulations. This collection of legal materials, called "book of the covenant" [Hebrew: "sefer ha-berit"] (24.7) or "Covenant Code" or "Covenant Collection," has affinities of form and content with other ancient law legal traditions. A discrete scribal collection, with laws—especially agricultural ones and those mentioning houses—inapplicable to a wilderness setting, it was likely incorporated into the Sinai narrative to afford it divine authority. The oldest of the legal materials in the Pentateuch, many of its stipulations probably arose in premonarchic village settings. Introductory instructions (20.22-26) and a concluding narrative (23.20-33) frame a two-part enumeration of legal materials. The first part (21.1-22.17) consists mainly of casuistic materials (case laws with attached punishments). The second part (22.18-23.19) comprises ethical or religious norms and exhortations typically expressed in apodictic or absolute form. These two parts may reflect the merging of ancient customary regulations with covenant-oriented materials.
Ex 20.22-26: Introductory instructions. Sacrifice can take place wherever people invoke God's name (presence); contrast 27.1-8 and the single "place" for sacrifice in Deuteronomy (Deut 12.5-14, etc.).
Ex 21.1-22.20: Ordinances (rulings) and statutes (rules). In form and content, this section resembles other ancient Near Eastern legal collections.
Ex 21.2-11: Manumission regulations for indentured Israelite servants. Laws dealing with servitude usually come at the end of ancient Near Eastern law collections; here they are first, indicating the humanitarian interests of the "book of the covenant" and/or its placement immediately after Israel's liberation from slavery.
Ex 21.33-22.15: Property and restitution, more case rulings.
Ex 22.16-20: Social and religious stipulations.
Ex 22.21-23.19: Ethical and religious exhortations and norms.
Ex 23.1-12: Judicial integrity and the protection of animals and marginal groups.
Ex 23.20-33: The Sinai narrative resumes with further divine promises and admonitions.
Ex 23.22: "Enemy . . . foes" employs Near Eastern treaty language.
Ex 23.25-26: Sustenance, health, and progeny are the blessings produced by covenant fealty (Lev 26.3-10; Deut 28.1-6).
Ex 23.27-30: First real taste of OT genocide: The land's indigenous inhabitants will be gradually expelled; in Deuteronomy and related literature, they are to be exterminated (e.g., Deut 7.2; Josh 10-11).
Ex 24.1-18: Theophanies and covenant ceremonies. Repetitive or conflicting details again indicate a composite narrative about God's appearance—to Moses and the leaders, and to Moses alone.
Ex 25-40: Sanctuary and new covenant. The focus of the rest of Exodus is the construction of the wilderness tabernacle as an earthly home for God. Detailed directions for building the portable shrine (25.1-27.1; 30.1-31.18) and for clothing and inaugurating its priests (28.1-29.46) are followed by an account of its construction so God's presence can enter (35.1-40.38). Much of the information in the second section is the same as in the first, although the internal order differs. Between the two sections comes the golden calf episode (chs 32-34), in which the covenant is broken and restored. Did some preemptive googling on the tabernacle. Professor of Theology Michael Homan posits that the tabernacle could have been based on Rameses II’s military tent, as they share various traits in dimensions, method of construction, internal specifics and general use, the tent in question being depicted in various instances of Egyptian iconography that would have been apparent to ancient scholars: The depiction of YHWH’s sacred tent as modeled on a military tent fits with biblical context of YHWH as a "Divine Warrior."
Ex 25.1-31.18: Instructions for building the tabernacle and inaugurating the priesthood.
Ex 26.1-37: The tabernacle structure.
Ex 27.1-19: The courtyard and its altar.
Ex 28.1-43: Vestments for the priests.
Ex 28.1: Aaron has appeared frequently but is first called priest here. No title is given for him in the Pentateuch; the titles "high priest" and "chief priest" are in non-Torah texts.
Ex 28.3: Women are not specifically excluded from contributing materials to the priesthood.
Ex 28.6-30: The engraved stones of the high priest represent the tribes of Israel, as such the wearer embodies all Israel, and any oracles received apply to all Israelites. The Urim and Thummim are usually interperted to mean marked pebbles or rocks that are cast or thrown to secure divine decisions, a form of divination.
Ex 28.36-38: Engraved rosette with the words "Holy to the Lord" as a protective measure is reminiscent of the much later solomonic tradition of seals.
Ex 29.1-46: Consecration of the priests.
Ex 29.20: Sprinkling the ram's blood on the priests' extremities (lobes . . . thumbs . . . toes), which represent their entire bodies, substitutes animal blood and death for that of the priests; their symbolic death means they belong to God.
Ex 30.1-31.18: Additional instructions.
Ex 31.1-11: Artisans.
Ex 31.11: "Do . . . commanded" implies that human creativity is subordinated to divine inspiration.
Ex 31.12: The phrase "The Lord said to Moses" is used here for a seventh time in conjunction with discussion on the sabbath; another use of the number 7.
Ex 32.1-34.35: Covenant violation and restoration. The golden-calf apostacy (also Deut 9.7-21; Ps 106.19-23; Neh 9.16-21) interrupts the tabernacle sequence, yet it parallels it in some ways: a command to construct, contributions of gold, construction, an altar and sacrifices. It thus contrasts the proper response to God in the chapters following this section, with the sinful one it describes.
Ex 32.1-35: Sin, divine anger, and several intercessions by Moses. This episode shares many details with the account of Jeroboam (first king of the northern kingdom, 928-907 BCE) erecting golden calves in Dan and Bethel (1 Kings 12.28-33; see also Deut 9.7-10.11).
Ex 32.13: Moses reminds God that the ancestral covenant is unconditional and irrevocable (Gen 13.15-16; etc.).
Ex 32.26-29: The shocking violence of the Levites, perhaps reflecting an ancient power struggle, earns them eternal priesthood. Worth noting that Aaron is allowed to live despite his involvement in this perverse act; perhaps [written as such] because the priesthood in later times was traced to him.
Ex 33.1-23: The divine presence is secured through a third plea by Moses.
Ex 33.7: Mention of a tent shrine in this passage distinct from the previously introduced tabernacle indicates that Exodus combines several traditions about a community shrine.
Ex 34.1-35: Covenant restoration and Moses's fourth plea to God. Here we find the so-named "Ritual Decalogue", indicated by the text to be the "Ten Commandments" commonly attributed to the formerly seen "Ethical" Decalogue of Exodus 20. It differs from the prior Decalogue in that this one focuses on largely ritual matters, leading some to believe it was a redactional supplement in order to bolster later Priestly concerns; others still believe it may be the earliest form of the Decalogue before the Ethical Decalogue was introduced due to shifting social concerns, leaving the Ritual Decalogue an aberrant remnant despite its status as being apparently representative of God's second fling regarding a Mosaic covenant.
Ex 34.29,35: "Shone" and "shining", better "radiant." The verb used here (from the Hebrew root "qrn") means "to radiate." The related noun "qeren," usually meaning "horn," has produced the erroneous notion that Moses had horns.
Ex 35-40: The tabernacle is constructed, and God's presence enters it. These chapters contain nearly verbatim repetitions of many passages of chs 25-31, except that they describe actions taken (rather than commanded) and are arranged according to pragmatic construction concerns rather than degree of sanctity.
Ex 38.8: Women worked as low-rank temple servitors, and they were allowed to enter the entrance to the tent of meeting, the highly significant site of Moses's oracular interactions with God.
Ex 39.1-31: Vestments (see 28.1-43). Moses's name here appears seven times, indicating his total involvement.
Ex 39.32: "Work . . . finished" echoes the Priestly language of Gen 2.2, as does 40.33; the construction of the tabernacle,, a microcosm of the cosmos, thus echoes creation. "Tabernacle of the tent of meeting", used only here and in 40.2,6,29, combines the two designations of the wilderness shrine and thus its two functions: a place for God's earthly presence, and a locale for oracular interactions.
Ex 40.1-38: Erection of the tabernacle, and God's presence filling it.
That's Exodus done. Surprised to find that half the book is spent on repeatedly redundant descriptions of the tabernacle as well as Moses's numerous ascents and descents of the mountain, but beyond that, we are all very familiar with the story of Exodus. As with Genesis, not much to add in totality; I don't know if I'll have parting words for each independent book, most of my personal observations are included within the notes I make themselves. Leviticus, then.
Then, out of the stars
So, out of the stars
Bloodied and broken, accord to the word
So, when the time comes
Oh, when the time comes
To broker anew, you make your voice heard
For what has been said
Intends to be kept;
In anguish repaid, to anguish incurred
As then, the word, so now, the word, so now, the word, as then